Afghanistan
Introduction and Geography:
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country situated at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south; Iran to the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north; and China to the northeast.Terrain and Capital:
Occupying 652,000 square kilometers, it is a predominantly mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest. Kabul is the nation's capital and largest city.Population:
The population is approximately 32 million, composed primarily of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks.Historical Overview
Ancient Civilizations:
Settled life emerged in the region around 9,000 years ago, later evolving into the Indus Valley Civilization. Key archaeological sites from this era have been found at Shortugai on the Amu Darya and Mundigak in Kandahar. Subsequent migrations and conquests shaped the area, including by Indo-Aryans, Achaemenid Persians (6th century BCE), and Alexander the Great (4th century BCE). The region became the eastern frontier of the Hellenistic world through the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
Classical and Medieval Eras:
Following conquest by the Mauryan Empire, Buddhism and Hinduism flourished for centuries. The Kushan Emperor Kanishka significantly contributed to the spread of Mahayana Buddhism. The region saw rule by various other Buddhist and Hindu dynasties. Islam was introduced in the mid-7th century, with fuller Islamization occurring between the 9th and 12th centuries under dynasties like the Ghaznavids and Ghurids. The area was later ravaged by the Mongols in the 13th century and ruled by empires including the Timurid, Mughal, and Safavid.
Founding of the Modern State:
The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak dynasty declaring independence in 1709. Ahmad Shah Durrani is considered the nation's founder, establishing the Durrani Empire in 1747. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire.
20th Century to Present:
Afghanistan gained full independence from foreign influence after the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. The latter half of the 20th century was marked by political instability, including a monarchy, a republic, a socialist state, and a Soviet protectorate, which triggered the Soviet-Afghan War. In 1996, the Taliban captured most of the country, establishing a totalitarian regime. They were removed from power after a US-led invasion in 2001 but continue to control significant territory. A protracted war between the government and the Taliban continues, contributing to severe human rights challenges.
Governance and International Standing
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and the Non-Aligned Movement, among others.
Economy and Challenges
The country's economy ranks 96th largest in the world by GDP (PPP), estimated at $72.9 billion. However, it fares poorly in per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 169th out of 186 countries as of 2018. Afghanistan faces profound challenges, including high levels of terrorism, poverty, child malnutrition, and corruption. The ongoing conflict has led to a problematic human rights record, with abuses committed by various parties.